04 - Discourse and Exchanges (Conversation Analysis)

Introduction

Hidden constraints

Every single conversational interaction we have has a set of unwritten rules which guide it. Discourse / Conversation analysts try to identify these rules. The following conversation sounds odd because it has a repetitive Initiation-Response structure, which is always being led by the same individual (A). Typically, in conversations, Initiation-Response structures will be relatively infrequent, and the Initaion could come from either speaker.

The extract is from a language classroom drill, and is characterised by excessive use of Initiation-Response exchanges, and abrupt shifts in topic. Just from reading it, we can sense that it is not a natural conversation. This suggests that we have internalised the "rules" for conducting a natural conversation.

1. A: Hello
   B: Hello
   A: How are you?
   B: Very well
   A: What did you do last night?
   B: I went to a film
   A: What did you have for breakfast this morning?
   B: Bacon and eggs
   A: Do you think priests should be women?
   B: Not really.

A good analogy for conversation is that it is like a jazz band. It looks spontaneous, but it has hidden rules.

Conversation analysis

This is a form of analysis which tries to identify the "hidden rules" of conversation. It involves taking detailed notes on a conversational interaction with special codes for pauses, overlaps, gestures, facial expression, tone of voice etc. People who practice Conversational Analysis often do not wish to have detailed knowledge of the social / cultural / institutional setting, because this would detract from their analysis of the interaction. It is a qualitative inductive approach whereby the analyst spends many hours coding and studying interactions, and reflecting on key behaviours.

A big advantage of this approach is that it can describe aspects of conversational interaction which no other approaches can. It has provided a number of important insights into clinical interaciton. A disadvantage is that it is subjective, and difficult to generalise (e.g. can we be sure that principles outlined by one CA study of a particular type of interaction will generalise to other interactions of the same type?)

Discourse

What's a Discourse

Language above the level of the sentence / utterance (i.e. consisting of multiple sentences / utterances). It can be dialogic, involving two or more speakers / users, or monologic, involving onely one speaker / user. Examples of dialogic discourses are a converseation, debate or meeting. Examples of monologic discourses are a lecture, speech or essay.

The study of dialogic discourse involves the study of how speakers interact, how information is structured

The magic of conversation

Less than 5% of the speech stream is delivered in overlap, and overlaps are very small (typically a few tenths of a second). We say that conversational turns are "latched". It is extraordinary to note that reaction times in conversations are far lower than baseline reaction times of around 200ms. The only way that we can possibly do this, is if we are (a) using cues to predict the end of the other speaker's turn, and (b) planning our own utterances while the other person is speaking. Examples of possible cues are the other person's intonation, eye gaze, speech rate and sentence structure.

Elements of conversation

A. Exchanges

A minimal unit of analysis in a dialogue. Minimally consists of Initiation + Response, e.g. A: Good morning!, B: Good morning!

A sequence consting of two or more moves. Often there is an initiation and a response. The first utterance in an exchange is often strongly iniating, which means a particular response is required. If an appropriate resopnse is not given this may be interpreted as rudeness. Here are some examples:

1. GREETING: Hello!
   GREETING: Hello!
2. DIRECTIVE: Stop doing that!
   RESPONSE TO DIRECTIVE: Okay. / Sorry / [stops doing action]
3. REQUEST FOR INFO: Do you know the way to Longbenton?
   SUPPLYING INFO: Yes. Go down this road and take a left.
   ...or... GIVING APOLOGY: I am sorry, no I don't.
4. COMPLAINT: Sorry, but this watch I bought last week as has just stopped.
   APOLOGY: Sorry to hear. Can I take a look?
5. OFFER: Would you like some cake?
   RESPONSE: Yes, please! / No, thankyou.
6. REQUEST FOR CLARIFICATION: Sorry, I didn't catch you.
   CONVERESATION REPAIR: I was just saying...

B. Turns

The time during which the speaker has the conversational floor. It may consist of multiple utterances. There is an assumption that the hearer is awaiting their turn to talk.

A "good" conversation is characterised by turns of roughly even lengths which are closely latched, with few overlaps.

Turns are negotiated between participants (they are "locally managed"). Turn-taking behaviour can be explained by three implicit rules:

1. Current Speaker may select the next Speaker
2. Next Speaker may self-select
3. Current S may continue but doesn't have to

Selecting the next speaker may be acheived via eye gaze, posture, vocative ("Jasmine?"), intonation, or certain turn-ending expressions, e.g. c'est la vie.

Overlaps sometimes occur between turns. Where these occur, the speaker who comes in often backtracks, e.g.

1. A: //Greg’s (got wha-)*
   B: Think you sh*** - think you should...

Point at which it is okay to start your turn is called a Transition relevance place. This is signalled in a variety of ways, e.g. syntactic structure indicates speaker is nearing the end of a clause / sentence, prosodic factors, e.g. falling pitch or reduced speech rate, gaze, gesture, or shoft of posture. Hearer must correctly identify Transition Relevance Place. If they come in at a place which is not, this is seen as interrupting.

C. Moves

This is the way we "move" the conversation forwards. Often there are conventional ways to do this, e.g.

Beginning conversation: Hello. have you got a minute?
Introducing a topic: You’ll never guess what happened! / How did you get on with Anya?
Closing a topic: Well, c’est la vie! / Well there we are / Well that's it / Mmmm [+ pause]
Changing topic: That reminds me…./ Well now… [with falling intonation] / I wonder... / Let me ask you...
Ending conversation: Gosh. is that the time? / Sorry, must dash!*

D. Topics

The topic is the thing the conversation is about. Often one topic will lead to another. They can be introduced / closed in conventional ways (see above).

Often, during social discourse (i.e. an interaction whose main purpose to socialise), topics morph gradually into each other, a process known as topic shift.

E. Back-channelling

This refers to the methods which the listener uses to show they are engaged in the conversation. It may consist gestures (e.g. look of interest / nodding), paralinguistic expressions (Mmmm... / Uh-huh!), single words (Wow, lovely, gosh), or even wholse sentences (You can say that again! / Yes indeed!).

If a hearer does not engage in any kind of back-channelling it will quickly make the speaker uncomfortable.

Focus on sequences

Pre-sequences

Simple sequences involve an iniator and a response, e.g. A: Hello! B: Hello! (see further examples above). However, sequences can take on a much more complex structure. One example, is a pre-sequence.

1. A: Are you busy tonight? [PRE-SEQUENCE 1]
   B: Not really. [PRE-SEQUENCE 2]
   A: Shall we go and see a film? [MAIN SEQUENCE 1]
   B: Yeah, good idea. [MAIN SEQUENCE 2]

The pre-sequence "paves the way" for the main sequence. It provides B with a "get-out clause" in case they do not wish to go out with A (presuming they interpret A's first utterances as a precursor to an invitation). In this way, B can decline without being rude. It also enables A to make an invitation without feeling socially awkward. Because they have provided B with a get-out clause, they can be more confident that they will respond positively.

Side-sequences

1. A: Are you going to the meeting today? [MAIN SEQUENCE 1]
   B: What time does it start? [SIDE SEQUENCE 1]
   A: Half past ten. [SIDE SEQUENCE 2]
   B: Yes, I’ll be there [MAIN SEQUENCE 2]

Repair

A key topic in Conversation Analysis. A repair is needed if a communication problem becomes apparent, e.g. one speaker does not understand the topic, intended referent, speech act of the other person's utterance, or if a word is not intelligible. Repairs can be undertaken as follows

A: Self-initated repair: A realises there is a communication problem and spontaneously reformulates their own utterance (e.g. She said she had done well in her math... I mean, physics exam).

B: Other initated self-repair. B draws attention to a communication break down (e.g. What was that again? / He said what?), and A reformulates their utterance.

C: Other initiated other repair. B draws attention to a communication breakdown and reformulates A's utterance.

While A and B are acceptable in conversation, C can be interpreted as quite rude.

Clinical conversations

These tend to be quite directive with young children, e.g. lots of Initiation-Response exchanges which are led by the therapist.

Many individuals with conversational impairment will have (a) inappropriate master of exchanges (e.g. does not give a response after an inititiation), (b) will adopt inappropriate repair strategies, (c) Will make inappropriate moves, e.g. will engage in sudden ttopic switching. Conversational impairment may be related to a variety of disorders. It may be a consequence of a primary structural language impairment, which makes conversational interaction difficult. Or it could be a primary impairment related to autism / right hemisphere damage.

Bibliography

Bloch, S., Saldert, C., & Ferm, U. (2015). Problematic topic transitions in dysarthric conversation. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 17(4), 373–383. https://doi.org/10.3109/17549507.2014.979879

Special issue of the Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders on Conversation Analysis approaches to autism (2016) – Vol 46, issue 2